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Ottoman Tunis refers to the episode of the Turkish presence in Ifriqiya during the course of three centuries from the 16th century until the 18th century, when Tunis was officially integrated into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis (province). Eventually including all of the Maghrib except Morocco, the Ottoman Empire began with the takeover of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman Turkish corsair and beylerbey Oruç Reis. The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis took place in 1534 under the command of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, the younger brother of Oruç Reis, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. However, it wasn't until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 under Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis that the Turks permanently acquired the former Hafsid Tunisia, retaining it until the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881. Initially under Turkish rule from Algiers, soon the Ottoman Porte appointed directly for Tunis a governor called the Pasha supported by janissary forces. Before long, however, Tunisia became in effect an autonomous province, under the local Bey. This evolution of status was from time to time challenged without success by Algiers. During this era the governing councils controlling Tunisia remained largely composed of a foreign elite who continued to conduct state business in the Ottoman Turkish language. Attacks on European shipping were made by Barbary pirates, primarily from Algiers, but also from Tunis and Tripoli, yet after a long period of declining raids, the growing power of the European states finally forced its termination after the Barbary Wars. Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of Tunisia contracted; it lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a Protectorate in 1881. A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of a population of Turkish origin, historically the male descendants were referred to as the ''Kouloughlis''. ==Mediterranean rivalry== In the 16th century, control of the western Mediterranean was contested between Spaniard and Turk. Both were confident due to recent triumphs and consequent expansion. In 1492, Spain had completed her centuries-long ''reconquista'' of the Iberian peninsula, which was followed by the first Spanish settlements in America. Spain then formulated an African policy: a series of presidios in port cities along the African coast.〔In the formulation of an ''African policy'' for Spain, the clergy had argued for attempting a complete conquest; however, King Ferdinand eventually decided on limited objectives that involved only the keeping of strong forts in a string of port cities. Henry Kamen, ''Empire. How Spain became a world power 1492–1763'' (New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 29–31. After the reconquest, several such port cities, e.g., Oran, were favorable to Spanish influence. Kamen (2003) at 29–30.〕〔J. H. Elliot, ''Imperial Spain. 1469–1716'' (New York: St. Martin's 1963; reprint Meridian 1977) at 52–55.〕 For their part, the Ottoman Turks had fulfilled their long-term ambition of capturing Constantinople in 1453, then successfully invaded further into the Balkans (1459–1482), and later conquered Syria and Egypt (1516–1517). Then Turkish corsairs became active from bases in the Maghrib.〔Wayne S. Vucinich, ''The Ottoman Empire: Its record and legacy'' (Princeton: C. Van Nostrand 1965) at 15–18.〕〔Stanford J. Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey'' (Cambridge University 1976) at volume I: 55–66, 83–85.〕 Spain captured and occupied several ports in North Africa, including Mers-el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), Tripoli (1510), and Bougie (1510); Spain also established treaty relations with a half dozen others. Among these agreements were ones with Algiers (1510), which included Spanish occupation of the off-shore island Peñón de Argel, with Tlemcen (1511), a city about 40 km. inland, and with Tunis, whose Spanish alliance lasted on-and-off for decades. Near Tunis, the port of Goletta was later occupied by Spanish forces who built there a large and strong presidio; they also constructed an aqueduct to Tunis for use by the kasbah.〔Henry Kamen, ''Empire. How Spain became a world power 1492–1763'' (New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 30–31 (Mers-el-Kebir), 32–33 (Oran), 31–32 (Bougie and Tripoli), 32 (Algiers).〕〔Charles-André Julien, ''Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord'' (Paris: Payot 1931, 1961), translated as ''History of North Africa. From the Arab conquest to 1830'' (London: Routledge, Kegan Paul 1970) at 279, 294 (Tlemcen), 282–284, 297–300 (Tunis).〕〔William Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 15–17, 22.〕〔"Tunis" entry in the (Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed., 1911). ) Goletta was occupied by the Spanish long after its use by the Turkish brothers Aruj and Khayr al-Din (see below).〕 The Hafsid dynasty had since 1227 ruled Tunisia, enjoying prestige when it was the leading state of the Maghrib, or barely surviving in ill-favored times. Extensive trade with European merchants continued over some centuries, an activity which led to state treaties. Yet the Hafsids also harbored corsairs who raided merchant shipping. During the 15th century the Hafsids employed as bodyguards a Christian force of hundreds, nearly all Catalans. In the 16th century the Hafsid rule grew weak, limited often to Tunis; the last three Hafsid sultans al-Hasan, his son Ahmad, and his brother Muhammad made inconsistent treaties with Spain.〔Julian, ''History of North Africa'' (1961; 1970) at 148 (corsairs), 153 (Catalan bodyguard), 158 (European merchants).〕〔Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Cambridge University 1971) at 148 (14th century corsairs: Christian and Muslim), 148–149 (15th century Hafsid's suzerainty over Tlemcen), 163–165 (early Spanish treaties), 177 (last three Hafsid sultans in the 16th century).〕〔Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (1976) at 11 (commercial treaty between Tunis and Aragon), 15 (piracy: European and North African), 17 (Hafsid early hub facilitating Turkish corsairs).〕 Yet the cross-cultural Hafsid alliance with Spain was not as unusual as it might seem, given the many Muslim-Christian treaties—despite recurrent hostilities.〔The 11th-century Spanish leader Ruy Díaz de Bivar was known to have fought alongside Muslims, even on the side of Muslims against Christians, e.g., for Almutamiz against García Ordóñez. His epithet ''El Cid'' meaning "lord" is derived from ''Siyyidi'' an expression of Arabic. Cf., ''Poema de Mio Cid'' (Madrid: Ediciones Rodas () 1972) at 58–62 and 15 note.〕〔During the years 1538–1540 King Carlos of Spain negotiated with Khayr al-Din Pasha (the younger Barbarossa). Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 165, 169.〕〔Fernand Braudel, ''La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II'' (Paris: Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated as ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' (New York: Harper & Row 1973, 1976) at II: 1144–1165. This flexible Spanish attitude continued into the 16th century, e.g., Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–1598) "for his part had always maintained diplomatic relations with the Turks." This Spanish King eventually treatied with the Ottoman Empire. Braudel at 1143 (quote).〕 Indeed, during the early 16th century, France allied with the Ottomans against the Spanish King Carlos.〔Stanford J. Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey'' (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 91, 102–103.〕〔There was more than merely anti-Spain provisions in the Franco-Ottoman agreements. France also gained trading privileges in the East and a protectorate over Christian pilgrimage destinations there. Lucien Romier, ''L'Ancienne France: des Origenes a la Revolution'' (Paris: Hachette 1948), translated and 'completed' by A.L.Rouse as ''A History of France'' (New York: St. Martin's Press 1953) at 198–199.〕 As an indirect result of Spain's Africa policy, a few Muslim rulers encouraged Turkish forces to enter the region to counter the Spanish presence. Yet the Hafsid rulers of Tunis came to see the Turks and their corsair allies as a greater threat and entered a Spanish alliance,〔Cf., Kenneth J. Perkins, ''Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European worlds'' (Boulder: Westview 1986) at 51–52, 53–54.〕 as also did the Sa'dids of Morocco.〔Abdallah Laroui, ''L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthèse'' (Paris: Libraire François Maspero 1970), translated as ''A History of the Maghrib. An interpretive essay'' (Princeton University 1977) at 250–251. Spain managed a tacit alliance with Sa'did Morocco circa 1549.〕〔This Spanish alliance with Sa'did Morocco was renewed in 1576, and again with Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1609). Henri Terrasse, ''Histoire du Maroc'' (Casablanca: Editions Atlantides 1949–1950), translated as ''History of Morocco'' (Atlantides 1952) at 120–124.〕 Nonetheless many Maghriban Muslims strongly preferred Islamic rule, and the Hafsid's decades-long Spanish alliance was not generally popular, indeed anathema to some.〔Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 162–163. Yet Prof. Abun-Nasr here states: "()he religious mood of the Muslims in the Maghrib at the turn of the sixteenth century was one of intolerance towards non-Muslims; and as their own rulers could not protect them against the Christians, they welcomed outside Muslim help. By exploiting the religious sentiments of the Maghriban Muslims, the Barbarossa brothers were able to establish a foothold in the Maghrib from which they gradually extended into the interior their own control, as well as the authority of the Ottoman sultan which they came to accept. But it would be wrong to assume that the Turks were readily or voluntarily accepted as rulers in any of the countries of the eastern and central Maghrib which they came to control." Abun-Nasr (1971) at 162–163.The author earlier had attributed this Maghriban mood of intolerance, both popular and scholarly, to the 1492 fall of Granada to Spanish forces and its consequences (immigration of Moorish Andalusians, loss of the 'buffer state' of Granada). Abun-Nasr (1971) at 157–158. "()his situation infused into Magriban theology an uncompromising strain comparable to the strictness of the Kharijite doctrine. (well-known theologian ) went to the extent of pronouncing infidels the Andalusians who were of the opinion that life in Spain was preferable to... the Magrhib, on the grounds that a true Muslim should always prefer to live under a Muslim prince. These standpoints would have been condemned by Muslim theologians during periods of strength and prosperity."This enmity continued due to a bitter combination of European attacks, corsair raiding, and "by linking it to Ottoman championing of the cause of Islam." Abun-Nasr (1971) at 158.〕〔Perkins, ''Tunisia'' (Westview 1986) at 54.〕 On the other hand, the Saadi dynasty sultans of Morocco successfully played off Iberian against Turk, thus managing to remain both Muslim ruled and independent of the Ottoman grasp.〔Henri Terrasse, ''Histoire du Maroc'' (Casablanca: Editions Atlantides 1949–1950), translated as ''History of Morocco'' (Atlantides 1952) at 120–124. The Ottoman efforts to control Morocco failed when the sultan they backed, although successful in gaining power, had then quickly entered into a Spanish alliance to counter Turkish designs. Terrasse (1952) at 121.〕〔Thus, Ottoman corsairs were denied use of Morocco's ports on the Atlantic. Later, the English approached Morocco seeking an anti-Spain treaty. Julien, ''A History of North Africa'' (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 230–232, 235.〕 In this naval struggle, the Ottoman Empire supported many corsairs, who raided European commercial shipping in the Mediterranean.〔Piracy was then practically common across the entire Mediterranean, there being both Muslim and Christian corsairs. Fernand Braudel, ''La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philip II'' (Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated by Siân Reynolds as ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' (Wm. Collins/Harper & Row 1973, reprint 1976) at II: 865–891.〕 The corsairs later would make Algiers their principal base. The "architects of Ottoman rule in the Maghrib" were Aruj () (c.1474–1518) and his younger brother Khizr "Khayr al-Din" (epithet ) (c.1483–1546).〔Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 163.〕〔''Arrudj'' and ''Khayruddin'' is the style used by Prof. M. H. Cherif of the Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales, Tunis. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya", 120–133, at 123, in ''General History of Africa, volume V'' (UNESCO 1992, 1999).〕 Both were called Barbarossa ("red beard"). The Muslim brothers hailed from obscure origins in the Greek island of Medelli or Mytilene (Lesbos ).〔The younger but more renown Khizr () received the epithet 'kheireddin' ("gift of God"). Aruj was known to his crew as 'baba Aruj' ("father Aruj") which might be the origin of the nickname 'Barbarossa'. They were raised Muslim. Their father may have been either a corsair, a renegade, or a janissary. Their mother either a Greek priest's daughter or an Andalusian taken captive. Wm. Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 17–19. Other Muslim sailors also were attracked by the opportunities in the Maghrib.〕〔There exists a 16th-century anonymous manuscript written in Arabic, ''Ghazawat 'Aruj wa Khair al-Din'', which was translated into French in 1837. Cited by Spencer (1976) at 20–21, 174.〕〔Julien, ''History of North Africa'' (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 278.〕 After acquiring fighting experience in the eastern Mediterranean (during which Aruj was captured and spent three years at oars in a galley of the Knights of St. John before being ransomed),〔Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (1976) at 18–19.〕 the two brothers arrived in Tunis as corsair leaders. By 1504 they had entered into a privateer agreement with the Hafsid sultan Mohammad b. al-Hasan (1493–1526). By it the 'prizes' (ships, cargoes, and captives) were to be shared. The brothers operated from Goletta (al Wadi ); they ran similar operations from Djerba in the south, where Aruj was governor. During these years in Spain, those who remained non-Christian were required to leave, including Muslims; at times Aruj employed his ships to transport a great many Moorish Andalucians to North Africa, especially Tunisia. For these efforts Aruj won praise and many Muslim recruits.〔〔Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (1976) at 19.〕〔Understandably, the Andalucian Mudéjars and Moriscos expelled from Spain could be "uncompromising in their hatred of the Christians" and often "engaged in piracy against the Christians, especially the Spaniards." Cf., Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 238.〕〔Cf., Richard A. Fletcher, ''Moorish Spain'' (New York: Henry Holt 1992) at 166–169. The Muslim corsair raids long afflicting Spain's coastal residents led Spaniards to view their Morisco (and Mudéjar) neighbors with suspicion.〕 Twice Aruj joined the Hafsids in unsuccessful assaults on Bougie, held by Spain. Then the brothers set up an independent base in Djidjelli east of Bougie, which attracted Hafsid hostility.〔 In 1516 Aruj and his brother Khayr al-Din, accompanied by Turkish soldiers, moved further east to Algiers, where he managed to wrestle control away from the shaykh of the Tha'aliba tribe, who had treatied with Spain. By intra-city political cunning, in which the tribal chief and later 22 notables were killed, control of Algiers passed to the Barbarossa brothers. The Turkish brothers were already Ottoman allies.〔Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (1976) at 19–22.〕 Yet in 1518 when Aruj led an attack against Tlemcen, then held by a Spanish ally (since 1511), Aruj was killed by Muslim tribal forces and the Spanish.〔Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 163–164.〕〔Julien, ''History of North Africa'' (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 279–280.〕 His younger brother Khayr al-Din inherited control of Algiers, but left that city and for some years was based to its east. After returning to Algiers, in 1529 he captured from Spain the offshore island Peñón de Argel whose guns had controlled the port; by constructing a causeway joining these islands he created an excellent harbor for the city.〔Julien, ''History of North Africa'' (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 280–281.〕 Khayr al-Din continued to direct large-scale raids on Christian shipping and against the coast lands of Mediterranean Europe, seizing much wealth and taking many captives. He won several naval battles and became a celebrity. In 1533 Khayr al-Din was called to Constantinople where the Ottoman sultan made him Pasha and the admiral (Derya'' ) over the Turkish navy;〔Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 164–165.〕 he acquired control over many more ships and soldiers. In 1534 Khayr al-Din "taking adbantage of a revolt against the ''Hafsid'' al-Hasan" invaded by sea and captured the city of Tunis from Spain's allies.〔Abdallah Laroui, ''The History of the Maghrib'' (Paris 1970; Princeton 1977) at 249 (italics added).〕 Yet the following year the Emperor Charles V (Carlos, Rey de España) (r.1516–1556) organized a fleet under Andrea Doria of Genoa, composed predominantly of Italians, Germans, and Spaniards, which proceeded to recapture Tunis in 1535, following which the Hafsid sultan Mawlay Hasan was reestablished.〔Rinehart, "Historical Setting" 1–70, at 21–22, in ''Tunisia. A country study'' (3d ed., 1986), ed. by Nelson. "The Hafsid sultan, Hassan, took refuge in Spain, where he sought the aid of the Habsburg king-emperor Charles V to restore him to his throne. Spanish troops and ships recaptured Tunis in 1535 and reinstalled Hassan. Protected by a large Spanish garrison at La Goulette, the harbor of Tunis, the Hafsids became the Muslim ally of Catholic Spain in its struggle with the Turks... ."〕〔R. Trevor Davies, ''The Golden Century of Spain. 1501–1621'' (London: Macmillan 1937; reprint NY: Harper 1961) at 92–102, 105 (versus the Ottomans), 94–97 (Tunis 1535).〕〔Stanford J. Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey'' (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 96–97.〕 Yet Khayr al-Din escaped.〔Henry Kamen, ''Empire. How Spain became a world power 1492–1763'' (New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 72–74 (Barbarossa escapes).〕 Thereafter, as supreme commander of naval forces for the Ottoman Empire, Khayr al-Din was largely preoccupied with affairs outside the Maghrib.〔Abu-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Cambridge University 1971) at 164–165.〕 A few decades passed until in 1556 another Turkish corsair Dragut (Turgut), ruling in Tripoli, attacked Tunisia from the east, entering Kairouan in 1558.〔Abdallah Laroui, ''The History of the Maghrib'' (Paris 1970; Princeton: 1977) at 251.〕 Then in 1569 Uluj Ali Pasha, a renegade corsair,〔Uluj Ali, also spelled Ochiali, was a Christian renegade of Italian (Neapolitan, Calabrian) origin. Later the Ottoman Sultan gave him the name ''Kilij'' (for "sword" ), so that he might then also be known as ''Kilij Ali''. J.P.D.B.Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries. The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire'' (New York: Wm. Morrow, Quill 1977) at 271.〕〔Uluj Ali's most commonly used epithet "Uluj" signifies "renegade". Abdallah Laroui, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Paris 1970; Princeton University 1977) at 251, n.19.〕〔Miguel de Cervantes calls Uluj Ali "el Uchalí" in his ''El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quíjote de la Mancha'' (Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta 1605; reprint Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena 1981), at chapters XXXIX and XL. El Uchalí's escape from the Ottoman defeat at Lepanto in 1571 is mentioned, and his later 1574 capture of Tunis is described by Cervantes, who was once his captive. About el Uchalí the Spanish author writes, "Era calabrés de nación, y moralmente fue hombre de bien, y trataba con mucha humanidad a sus cautivos... ." (was Calabrian by birth, and morally a good man, who treated with much humanity his captives... ." ) Chapter XL, first page of prose.〕 now the successor to Khayr al-Din as the ''Beylerbey'' of Algiers, advanced with Turkish forces from the west, and managed to seize the Spanish presidio Goletta and the Hafsid capital, Tunis.〔Fernand Braudel, ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at II: 1066–1068. Here Uluj Ali is called ''Euldj 'Ali''.〕〔Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 173.〕 After the key naval victory of the Christian armada at Lepanto in 1571,〔The combined fleets of various Christian powers, including Spain as well as Venice and Genoa, under the leadership of Don Juan de Austria (half-brother of Philipe II de España) met and defeated the Turkish fleet off the coast of western Greece. Algerian ships under Uluj Ali escaped. J.Beeching, ''The Galleys at Lepanto'' (New York: Scribner's 1982) at 184–187, 219, 233–234.〕 Don Juan de Austria in 1573 retook Tunis for Spain, restoring Hafsid rule.〔Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) at 177.〕 Yet Uluj Ali returned in 1574 with a large fleet and army, and captured Tunis with finality. To the Turkish sultan he then sent by ship, imprisoned, the last ruler of the Hafsid dynasty.〔When Eulj Ali (Ali ) returned to capture Tunis in 1574, he oversaw Sinan Pasha (a Turkish commander) who was in direct charge. Abu-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Cambridge University 1971) at 173, 177.〕〔Robert Rinehart, "Historical Setting" 1–70 at 22, in ''Tunisia. A country study'' (Washington, D.C.: American University 3rd ed. 1986), edited by Harold D. Nelson.〕 The Spanish-Ottoman truce of 1581 quieted the Mediterranean rivalry between these two world powers. Spain kept a few of its Maghriban presidios and ports (e.g., Melilla and Oran).〔Julien, ''History of North Africa'' (Paris 1961; London 1970) at 300–301.〕〔Fernand Braudel, ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' (Paris: 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at 1161–1165. Braudel opines that by this treaty Spain did not walk out on her allies, as Spain continued to protect Italy. Braudel at 1165.〕 Yet both Spanish and Ottoman Empires had become preoccupied elsewhere.〔During this long back-and-forth contest, the two powerful Empires were also otherwise engaged. The Spanish contended with an on-going Protestant challenge, including the later Dutch Revolt, with several Muslim insurgencies in Spain, e.g., the Morisco Revolt, and of course with America. The Ottoman was entangled in intermittent warfare elsewhere, e.g., in Safavid Peref>During this long back-and-forth contest, the two powerful Empires were also otherwise engagedrsia, and in Habsburg Hungary. Cf., Itzkowitz,''Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition'' (University of Chicago 1972) at 66, 68–71.〕 The Ottomans would claim suzerainty over Tunisia for the next three centuries; however, its effective political control in the Maghrib would prove to be of short duration. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Ottoman Tunisia」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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